Psy/460 - Week One Short Answer

Environmental psychology is likely to be a new field for you, although many of the concepts are probably familiar. Provide your own definition of the discipline. Discuss an important milestone or influence in the development of environmental psychology and provide reasoning as to why you chose this one.

Environmental psychology is a branch of psychology that studies how the environment affects individuals, and vice-verse. There is a reciprocal relationship between people and the environment they live in, as they both affect each other. The relationship between nature and the human species has been an object of study for many decades, and understanding this relationship can help individuals learn about the importance of conserving and maintaining the world that supports them (Steg, 2013). The environment provides humans with food, water, air, and all the other necessities individuals need to survive, even if, in a world dominated by technology and progress, it is easy to forget that one way or another, everything we need to survive comes from the earth. Environmental psychology focuses not only on the physical influences humans and environment have on each other, but also in which ways nature affects individuals’ behaviors. One important aspect of this discipline is the belief that people’s behaviors are not determined solely by the environment (Steg, 2013). Most psychologists in this area believe in free will, as being the power individuals have to change their behaviors, and consequently, to change the environment.

Although it is difficult to point out one single event that influenced the development of the field of environmental psychology, it is safe to say that in the beginning of the 21^st century it was clear to see that man-caused issues such as pollution and deforestation had consequences like climate changing, poor air quality, and more. At this time, the world was introduced to the concept of sustainability, which refers to the healthy and balanced integration between environmental, social, political, economic, and natural factors (Steg, 2013). The introduction of this broad concept has allowed the world to understand the importance of respecting the earth and promoting a “great” way of thinking. Environmental psychology researches not only the relationship between human and nature, but also ways that this relationship can develop without damaging the planet (Steg, 2013).

Reference

Steg, L. (2013). Environmental psychology: An introduction. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. 

Psy/460 - Risk Perception at the Work Environment

Risk Perception at the Work Environment

Risk perception can be defined as a subjective judgment individuals make of the severity of risks. Environmental risk is a subject that creates debate and animosity between people with different beliefs, since most individuals have a different perception regarding the extent of issues around the world (Steg, 2013). Steg (2013) explains that an environmental risk is any situation, activity, or event that may possibly bring negative consequences and affect human values. The last decade saw an increased popularity of environmental risk discussions about problems like climate change, air pollution, noise pollution, sustainability, the use of pesticides, among other issues. Most environmental issues being discussed nowadays were created by men. Large corporations play an important role in the current situation of the world environment. Because of their constant search for higher profits, large organizations often disregard the environment, either by sending pollution into the air, extracting too much out of the nature, or submitting its employees to an unsafe work environment, that will be detrimental not only to the employee personally, but also to the world. This paper will analyze two articles that explained how unsafe work conditions can be detrimental to workers’ health as well as to the environment.

Article One

The first article to be analyzed is the one written by Kelly A. Scanlon, and is entitled “The work environment disability-adjusted life year for use with life cycle assessment; a methodological approach”. Written in 2012, this research article explains that the LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) is a method used to evaluate how workers’ health and the environment are affected by the usage, emissions, and extractions throughout the life cycle of a determined product (Scanlon, 2012). The purpose of this methodology is to find ways for products to have less of an impact on the environment, by determining how much that product is affecting the workers who produced it and the environment around it (Scanlon, 2012). The article also presents the term WE-DALY (Work Environment – Disability Adjusted Life Year). By using this concept, corporations are able to lessen the negative and harmful impact that they are likely to make on the environment, both globally, locally, and within the corporation itself. Both the LCA and the WE-DALY methods can help find ways to make products in a less harming way, as well as finding alternative products that are not so harmful to the environment. The main purpose of this research is to find strategies to lessen the damage that large production companies can inflict on their workers and on the environment (Scanlon, 2012).

Article Two

The second article to be analyzed is the one written by Dr. Jagdish C. Hundekari for the International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, also in 2012. This study had the purpose of evaluating and understanding how workers in the Thermal Power station were exposed to stressful stimuli (heat) and how that exposure affected their levels of hypertension (Hundekari, 2012). To perform the research, two hundred male workers from the Thermal Power station were selected and divided in groups according to their age. A control group of one hundred men was not exposed to any extreme heat, while the other one hundred workers were exposed to heat for eight hours a day, six days a week (Hundekari, 2012). At the end of the study, scientists were able to conclude that the workers who were exposed to the heat had higher levels of the factors that cause hypertension and heart disease. “We observed a significant increase in serum lipoproteins and atherogenic index in workers of thermal power station those who are exposed to heat when compared with controls. This suggests that the workers are at higher risk of hypertension and CHD which is also dependent on age and duration of exposure” (Hundekari, 2012, p. 2). The study found that although young individuals were able to support the heat for longer periods of time without so many negative consequences, the older workers could not (Hundekari, 2012).

Comparison and Interpretation

Both articles mentioned in this paper focused on the many ways that the work environment can be detrimental to the employees’ health, as well as its effects on the global environment. Dr. Hundekari’s studies focused more on the effects of the work environment on a more personal level, showing how an employee’s health can be in serious danger because of his work conditions. This article was a case study showing a practical view of the situation, without necessarily presenting alternative ideas. The article written by Scanlon, on the other hand, exposed methods and techniques that if applied responsibly and correctly, can allow corporations to implement production ways that are less harming to both the environment and the workers. It is important for organizations to understand the risks that their products present to both the world and their staff. Although most industries will most likely leave a harmful footprint on earth, minimizing the damages is crucial. It is obvious that the world has changed in the past few decades. The planet is warmer, and climate change affects not only individuals but also animals and ecosystems in general. For employees who have to work every day in a harmful environment, understanding the risks is even more important. In the case of the Thermal Power station, for example, individuals who have high blood pressure would not be good candidates to work there, as well as older people.

Conclusion

Psychologists have shown that individual perception regarding risks at work is most likely influenced by pre-existing, recent or readily experiences (Drakopoulos & Theodossiou, 2011). My personal opinion of the matter is that I understand that people have to work, and corporations need to make money to stimulate the economy. If an unemployed, older man is offered a job at a place that is not necessarily the safest option for him (like the Thermal Power station, for example), but he has a family to feed, he still needs to be aware of the risks that the job represents to him, and make a conscious decision about what is worth doing and what is not. When it comes to corporations, however, I do believe in laws and enforcements to guarantee that that company represents the least possible amount of damage to the environment. Corporations are known for doing whatever it takes to make a profit, showing little respect for the planet. By enforcing rules about work safety and sustainability, corporations can still run their normal activities, but without further damaging the environment. 

References

Drakopoulos, S. A., & Theodossiou, I. (2011, March). Workers' risk underestimation and occupational health and safety regulation. European Journal of Law and Economics.

Hundekari, J. C. (2012). Prolonged Occupational Exposure to Stressful Stimuli(Heat) as a Cause of raised Atherogenic Index in Thermal Power Station Workers. International Journal of      Scientific & Engineering Research .

Kelly A Scanlon, G. M. (2012). The Work Environment Disability-Adjusted Life Year for use with Life Cycle Assessment: A Methodological Approach. Environmental Health.

Steg, L. (2013). Environmental psychology: An introduction. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.

Psy/460 - The Effects of Population Density and Noise on Individuals

The Effects of Population Density and Noise on Individuals

Population density is a concept that is strongly connected to stress, anxiety, and various heart diseases – primarily because of its association with excessive noise and its negative consequences on human beings. With an increase in the population numbers of cities around the world come unwanted factors like lack of personal space, privacy, and territory; all of these factors have been scientifically proven to be associated with the deterioration of human health. Because population density is correlated to noise, and consequently health problems, it is important for the population to be aware and knowledgeable about ways to protect itself from the dangers related to these issues.

Explaining Privacy, Territoriality, and Personal Space

Privacy can be defined as a “selective control of access to the self or to one’s group” (Altman, 1977, p. 67). In other words, the concept of privacy revolves around an individual’s ability to control what personal information is shared with the world and what personal information he or she decides to keep to him or herself. With the advances of technology and social media in the current modern society, a battle between what is public information and what is private information has arisen. The internet has made it so the private lives of individuals (famous or not) are displayed on a screen for anyone to see.

Territory can be defined as a specific area or space that, in some way, belongs to a group, or an individual. According to Altman (1977), there are three types of territory: primary, which is an area used exclusively by a group or person (like an individual’s home); Secondary, which is an area regularly used by a group of person, but shared with others (like someone’s favorite bench on a park); Tertiary, which is a shared space accessible to anyone (like the park itself). Human territoriality can be explained as the need human beings have to defend and mark their territory – just like animals do. Having one’s territory invaded is a source of anxiety and stress.

Personal space is a physical distance that individuals choose to keep within one another. “Personal space is an area with invisible boundaries surrounding a person’s body into which intruders may not come” (Sommer, 1969, p. 26). These invisible boundaries that surround an individual’s body can difference amongst cultures, as some cultures are more open to human contact while others avoid it. Also, personal space is a changeable and evolving concept, and individuals will more likely change their perception about this factor throughout their lives. Both personal space and territoriality are ways for human beings to maintain their privacy.

Privacy, Territoriality, and Personal Space with Population Density Increase

            It is safe to say that when the population density of a specific location increases, the people of that area will suffer the consequences. A large population density stimulates the feeling of being crowded, which leads to individuals becoming more violent than they would normally be in a less populated area. With that, individuals will suffer not only from anxiety and social withdraw, but also from the increase of criminal and violent acts – as a result of people feeling more aggressive (Stokols, 1995). To avoid these negative symptoms, it is important for individuals who live in an overpopulated area to try and preserve their privacy and their personal space. Respecting the territoriality of those around may be a challenge, but it is crucial to maintain a balanced and stabilized society.

            A study performed by John Calhoun compared the lives of individuals living in a high density population area to the life of rats. He learned from his experiment that when the rats had plenty of space to move around, the rats behaved normally. When the rats’ population increased, they became violent, more territorial, fought more, and some even became cannibalistic (Straub, 2007). Although the concepts are not absolutely transferrable, the study is valid to show that population density certainly affect all beings.

How Nature Affects individuals in Urban Environments

            With the fast-moving life in urban cities, it is often for the population to suffer from stress, anxiety, and even heart problems, as results of the high population density and the issues that accompany the situation. The presence of controlled natural environments within big cities, such as zoos, parks, and any other green areas has been proven to help individuals relief stress and consequently avoid more serious health issues. The stressful lifestyle of big urban cities involves juggling busy schedules, family, friends, while trying to avoid violent acts and traffic. Nature allows individuals to recharge their abilities, while feeling restored and rejuvenated. Urban natural environments allow individuals to have access to the restorative powers of nature without having to travel to distant mountains or beaches. “Natural settings are often proclaimed for their capacity to instill a sense of peace and serenity. They are not usually described as hectic or rushed. Somehow, tranquility is more readily achieved in the natural context. But such settings need not lack in excitement, vibrancy, awesome- ness, or sensory richness. In the presence of nature it seems possible to combine the exciting and the serene” (Kaplan, 1984, p.190).

How Noise Affects Individuals

Excessively noise environments have been proven to cause negative impacts on human health. Consequences to an over-exposure to noise can lead to stress, anxiety, high blood pressure and other heart-related diseases (Straub, 2007). The most common health related effect to excessive noise is Noise Inducing Hearing Loss (NIHL). Although adults certainly suffer from the effects of noise, children are even more vulnerable to its impact, as noise can decrease learning ability, short-term memory, and the overall ability to hear, since excessive noise can also lead to hearing loss (Straub, 2007). Chronic noise exposure will hurt children when they learn to block out all types of noise, including the sounds they actually need in order to learn. Noise has also been proven to decrease individuals’ (children or adults) ability to perform simple tasks.

Strategies to Reduce Noise

Life in urban environments is guaranteed to have noise as one of its permanent elements. Although there is not a lot individuals can do to completely block excessive urban sounds (such as ambulances, loud music, fights, traffic sounds, etc.), there are ways to reduce the excessive noise and allow individuals to live a healthy lifestyle, no matter where they live. One easy strategy to reduce excessive noise is the installation of extra fabric over the windows. The extra layer of curtains will provide not only additional insulation – making the cooling and heating bills lower – but it will also block some of the noise coming from the street. Choosing carpet instead of hard wood floors will also muffle and absorb some of the noise coming from outside.

            Another alternative to reduce noise, and consequently stress and anxiety, is playing some kind of white noise constantly. This technique, known as auditory masking, doesn’t necessarily eliminate the noise coming from outside, but instead allows individuals to focus on a soothing and calming sound, instead of the aggressive noise from the streets. White noise is commonly used to sooth babies, but adults can benefit from it as well. White noise can come from an inexpensive machine or from something simple that most homeowners already have, like a fan or any other type of consistent background sound.

Conclusion

            Although the modern world, especially in big urban cities, presents individuals with many things to make their lives easier, it also brings negative elements that can cause psychological distress on many people. Human beings need their personal space, as well as their privacy and their sense of territoriality in order to function properly and normally. Although most individuals’ perceptions regarding these factors are different, the mutual agreement is that all human beings suffer and are impacted by limited space. Inn large and overpopulated cities, where each individual’s personal space is limited, the levels of aggression and crimes are higher than in areas where people have more room. Although this correlation does not necessarily imply causation, it cannot be ignored. Another factor that causes aggression, stress, and anxiety in individuals living in urban environments is the constant presence of noise. This disturbance can create excessive annoyance, leading to diseases, insomnia, and poor social interaction. There are many alternatives to reduce the influence of noise on individual’s daily routine, allowing them to enjoy the benefits and commodities of living in a big urban area, without having to sacrifice their health and well-being.

References

Altman, I. (1977). Privacy regulation: culturally universal or culturally specific? Journal of Social Issues, 33(3), 66-84.

Kaplan, R. (1984). Impact of urban nature: a theoretical analysis. Urban Ecology, 8(3), 189-197.

Sommer, R. (1969). Personal space; the behavioral basis of design. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.

Stokols, D. (1995, October). The paradox of environmental psychology. American Psychologist, 50(10), 821-837.

Straub, R. O. (2007). Health psychology (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Wor

Psy/460 - Environmental Cues and Human Behavior

Environmental Cues and Human Behavior

The environment is constantly affected by human behavior, both globally and  in a local level. The effects of human behavior on the environment can be positive or negative. Some of the negative effects include climate change, deforestation, extinction of animal species, pollution, noise, etc. Some of the positive effects include the preservation of endangered animal species, the protection of the ozone layer, and the conservation of the resources Earth has to offer. This essay will explore a variety of these effects while explaining the influence of environmental cues on individuals, the importance of sustainability and its impact in the environment, and the effect of social norms in human behavior. It will also present possible solutions to successfully change behaviors and minimize negative environment impact.

Humans’ Impact on the Environment

It is impossible to completely avoid human impact on the environment. Simply by existing and living on the planet Earth, all species, including animals and human beings, will leave a footprint and a mark on the world around them. Although, like mentioned previously, human beings can affect the environment positively, it is the negative impact that is a main cause for concern regarding the planet’s future. In order to make their lives more comfortable and convenient, individuals have adapted to and changed the environment, sometimes without considering the consequences of their actions.

There is graphical evidence, from satellite photos, that indicate that the severe damage caused by humans on the environment is out of control. There is a dangerously large hole in the ozone layer, which is a protective covering around the planet. This layer is destroyed by gases like CO2, methane, and chlorofluorocarbons, which can be found in aerosol spray cans and refrigeration devices. The ozone layer protects the Earth from UV rays from the sun, so holes in the layer can lead to global warming. Humans are the post polluting species, generating much more waste than the planet Earth can deal with (Evans, 1982). Soil pollution, water pollution, and air pollution are some of the most commonly discussed negative effects of human behavior on the environment.

Although the media focuses much more on the negative ways humans impact the environment, there are positive ways individuals leave their mark on the planet as well. For instance, humans control wildfires, which can destroy large areas of forest and the animals that live in them. Also, humans protect endangered species by breeding nearly extinct animals in captivation, and then releasing them back into the wild when there are sufficient numbers of them. Humans also clean waterways, promote the reforestation of damaged areas, and selectively remove invasive species that are threats to local ecosystems.

How Environmental Cues Shape Human Behavior

Environmental cues can be explained as elements in the environment which send important information or trigger effective reactions out of individuals (Steg, 2013). Environmental cues encourage individuals to behave a certain way or engage in certain actions, depending on how those around them respond to those cues. One example of how environmental cues affect human behavior is with recycling. In towns where the inhabitants are encouraged to recycle their trash, most individuals end up doing it. The pressure of those around them incentives individuals to do the right thing.

How Behavior Can be Modified to Support Sustainability

There are many ways individuals can be empowered to change their behaviors and live more sustainably. Although most people want to respect the environment and engage in sustainable behaviors, they continue to create a negative environmental impact. Human behavior is a combination of psychological internal factors and external clues. Because of this, an inclination and motivation to behave sustainably is usually not enough to make individuals change their behaviors. It is important to note that behavior is situational, so “even after a person has formed an intention to behave in a certain way, situational circumstances can lead to a surprisingly different behavior. Intention must be reinforced and supported across different situational contexts” (Manning, 2009, p. 4). Also, it is easier for individuals to engage in sustainable behavior when they encounter fewer obstacles. For example, organic food is more expensive than “regular” food, which can discourage individuals to pick the sustainable route. Some actions created to contribute to sustainability are civil actions (voting, petition signing, etc.), educational actions, financial actions (donations, boycotting specific companies, etc.), and more importantly, direct behavior, like the small changes individuals can make to their routine in a daily basis, like taking the bike to work, buying local produce, insulating their homes, etc. (Manning, 2009).

How Social Norms Can Influence Environmental Behaviors and Beliefs

            Recent studies suggest that pro-environmental behaviors can influence pro-environmental values, and vice-versa. Individuals act a certain way because they not only hold certain values, but also because of different factors, such as economic incentive ("Social Norms, Behavior Influence Environmental Policy", 2013). For example, individuals may engage in recycling because of that economic incentive, but the repetitive act of recycling will create a value for recycling in general. In other words, “if policy dictates a pro-environment behavior, the repeated act of that behavior will become second nature – and even part of a value system – for individuals required to do it. The researchers argue that behavioral change may be the tipping point for real climate change mitigation and one step closer to a sustainable future” ("Social Norms, Behavior Influence Environmental Policy", 2013).

Solutions That Could Change Behavior and Lessen Negative Environmental Impact

            There are many ways how individuals can change their everyday behaviors and start to lessen their impact on the environment. By saving water, electricity, and gas, each individual’s foot print on Earth will be less damaging. Carpooling, taking shorter showers, line drying the clothes, and owning hybrid cars and solar panels are all relatively easy ways to conserve valuable resources. Also, recycling is a staple when it comes to protecting the environment. By repurposing household items, reusing grocery bags, creating a compost pile, and buying bulk food, individuals will be making small changes that will create less waste.

Conclusion

            Although changing the behaviors of the majority of the population on the planet, who has been acting in very destructive ways for the past few decades, is a hefty task. However, nowadays there is a great deal of awareness regarding the dangers that the future holds for planet Earth and all of those living on it, unless severe change occurs. Behavioral change can happen with small steps. When individuals make a conscious decision to reduce their carbon footprint, their personal waste, and the damage there are personally inflicting upon the environment, their impact on the planet can be less damaging. It is impossible to completely avoid any damage, since human beings need to change the environment in order to survive. However, after decades of destroying the planet, now it is time to change and turn the situation around, so there is any hope for future generations.

References

Evans, G. (1982). Environmental stress. New York, NY: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.

Manning, C. (2009). The psychology of sustainable behavior. St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Pollution Control Agency.

Social norms, behavior influence environmental policy. (2013). Retrieved from https://asunews.asu.edu/20130214_behaviorpolicy

Steg, L. (2013). Environmental psychology: An introduction. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.