Psy/450 - Psychological Disorder

Week 4: Psychological Disorder

1.         Psychological Disorder (as listed in the DSM-IV-TR):

            Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.

2.         DSM-IV-TR Code for this disorder:

            #300.3

3.         Why did you choose this disorder? (50 words or less)

            This disorder is one that I find interesting for many reasons, but primarily because it has gained so much popularity and visibility in the past few decades. Many television shows show the struggle of patients living with OCD and some compulsions and obsessions can be bizarre. I chose this disorder because I would like to learn more about the cultural aspects of it.

4.         Discuss the psychological disorder (150-250 words)

            Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, or OCD, is characterized by repetitive, unwanted thoughts which are followed by the repetition of rituals. By performing those rituals, the patient believes that he or she will be able to avoid the anxiety that is produced by the repetitive thoughts (Hansel & Damour, 2008). Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder is equally common among men and women. The obsessions manifest as recurrent thoughts, impulses, fears, and ideas, while compulsions are the drive pushing the patient to perform some kind of repetitive act, which can be speaking a phrase, cleaning his body, checking the locks, etc. Patients believe that unless the perform the ritual, bad things can happen. Although most patients are aware that their behavior is abnormal, they can’t control their thoughts and obsessive need to perform rituals (Hansel & Damour, 2008). Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder can start to manifest in individuals of all ages, including children. However, onset past the age of 40 is very rare (Hansel & Damour, 2008).

5.         Discuss the relationship between human development and socialization (150-250 words)

            During individuals’ life span, they will go through a series of psychological, physical, and behavioral changes. This phenomenon is known as human development. Socialization, on the other hand, refers to the process through which individuals learn and adapt to the behaviors and norms of their culture, through instruction, experience, and observation. Both processes – human development and socialization – are in permanent motion throughout the course of an individual’s life (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). Human beings are constantly changing and developing their beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors, and that development occurs similarly within certain cultures, since individuals tend to conform to their social expectations. For example, in small cultures with little occupational specialization, parents expect children to learn new concepts on their own, while in industrialized societies children have a specific set of guides associated with their learning (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). However, despite of those social influences, human development will occur at each individual’s own time. The individual’s socialization will be influenced by the culture’s characteristics, even if these characteristics become intrinsic and unconscious (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). 

           

6.         How does the relationship between human development and socialization affect the          psychological disorder? (150-250 words)

            When it comes to the influence of human development on the Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, it is interesting to note that studies have shown that individuals with higher IQ scores, especially those in industrialized countries, are more likely to suffer from OCD (Peterson, Pine, Cohen, & Brook, 2001). In the United States, for instance, over 2% of the population suffers from this disorder, which is the fourth most common psychiatric disorder in the country. Individuals who suffer from Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder are also likely to suffer from depression. It is difficult to link environment factors to the occurrence of OCD, but researchers believe that a predisposed genetic component associated with the disorder may be affected by the environment (Pub Med Health, 2010). A curious aspect of OCD is the fact that the symptoms of this disorder can easily be associated with elements of normal human behavior, like cleaning ot worrying about safety, but elevated to a higher level.

7.         Discuss cultural considerations in regards to prevalence, treatment, trends, etc. (150-250   words)

            Studies have shown that cultural differences do not have a high impact on the epidemiology of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, as this disorder is consistent in many different countries and cultures. In fact, researches performed in 15 different countries showed that the differences between cultures do not have that much influence on lifetime prevalent rates, which range between 1.9% (Korea) and 2.5% (Japan) (Pallanti, 2008). Some studies have shown that religion can be associated with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. In the Egyptian culture, for example, individuals are requires to pray several times a day, and have repetitive cleaning rituals, which are very strict. This emphasis and obsession with cleanliness can be considered a source of obsessions and compulsions in that culture. (Osaka, 2004). However, after observing the different researches, it is possible to conclude that Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder is more linked to genetics and biological factors than cultural differences, even if some cultures’ characteristics may induce obsessive behaviors.

8.         Discuss how this disorder may/may not be accepted/explained within certain cultural         contexts (150-250 words).

            Although some culture’s values and traditions may be linked to the existence and prevalence of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, the abnormal extreme behaviors associated with the disease are frowned upon cross-culturally, and often bring shame and embarrassment to patients, even leading to suicidal thoughts in some cases. One of the cultural factors that can be strongly associated with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder is religion, since rituals performed by religious groups can be repetitive, judgmental and strict, which brings out feelings like worry, vulnerability, and neuroticism (Hansell & Damour, 2008). The cultural factors present in different countries tend to shape the symptoms on patients suffering with OCD. In Brazil, for example, researchers found a predomination of aggressive obsessions, which can be linked to the rise of urban violence in the country. In the Middle Eastern cultures, the primary sources of compulsion in patients were religious/scrupulosity concerns (Lewis-Fernandez et al., 2010). Although these examples may not represent an acceptance of the still highly tabooed disorder, it offers some explanation to the various symptoms in different cultures.

9.         What have you learned about this disorder that you did not previously know? (50-100      words)

            Some facts about Obsessive-Compulsive disorder that I found interesting to learn were the ones regarding the prevalence of the disorder. For example, the fact that individuals with higher IQ are more likely to suffer from OCD was particularly interesting because it makes sense. Very smart individuals usually have a difficult time unwinding, and their brains are constantly working and worrying, which can explain the occurrence of obsessive thoughts.

10.      

References

Hansell, J., & Damour, L. (2008). Abnormal psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Lewis-Fernández, R., Hinton, D. E., Laria, A. J., Patterson, E. H., Hofmann, S. G., Craske, M. G., Stein, D. J., Asnaani, A. and Liao, B. (2010), Culture and the anxiety disorders: recommendations for DSM-V. Depress. Anxiety, 27: 212–229. doi: 10.1002/da.20647

Osaka, A. (2004). OCD in Egyptian adolescents: The effect of culture and religion. Retrieved from http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/articles/ocd-egyptian-adolescents-effect-culture-and-religion

Pallanti, S. (2008). Transcultural observations of obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165(2), 169-170. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07111815

Pub Med Health. (2010). Obsessive-compulsive disorder. PubMed Health. Retrieved June 23, 2011, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001926/

Shiraev, E. B. & Levy, D. A. (2010). Cross-cultural psychology: Critical thinking and contemporary applications (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson/Allyn Bacon.

Psy/450 - Diversity Intelligence Worksheet

1. Define Intelligence. (200-300 words)

Shiraev and Levy (2010) explain that intelligence can have many different definitions, most of which will include the concept of knowledge. A generic and comprehensive explanation of what knowledge is would be an individual’s capability of using his mental abilities to acquire and use knowledge, perform tasks and understand and adapt to the world around him (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). It is impossible to understand intelligence without associating that concept to cognition, and both ideas are inseparable. Cognition can be explained as a “diversified process by which the individual acquires and applies knowledge” (Shiraev & Levy, 2002, p. 121). Based on this explanation, it is possible to understand why both concepts go hand in hand. Authors reject the idea that an individual’s intellectual functioning is only determined by a single factor, and defend the idea that factors like verbal, mathematical, and spatial skills impact someone’s intelligence levels, allowing for the possibility that individuals can be equally intelligent, in different ways (Thurstone, 1938). An interest definition of intelligence is the one presented by Ulric Neisser (1979), who explained that intelligence is nothing but the degree to which an individual resembles a prototypically intelligent person. This idea serves to show that the definition of “intelligence” is not an absolute idea, but one that can be adapted to different situations.

2. Identify/List two (2) theories of intelligence.

Two of the most popular theories of intelligence are Charles Spearman’s concept of general intelligence, and Louis L. Thurstone’s theory of primary mental abilities.

3. Discuss each identified theory of intelligence. (200-300 words)

Many authors and researchers have failed in crafting a comprehensive and appropriate theory to explain intelligence, perhaps because of the complexity of the topic (Warner, 2002). However, some theories of intelligence have succeeded in presenting ideas that explain the concept. British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) believed in the existence of general intelligence, or how he referred to it, the g factor. By analyzing a number of different aptitude tests using a factor analysis technique, he realized that the tests presented very similar scores. Based on his observations, he concluded that individuals who performed satisfactorily in one of the tests, would also have a good performance on the other tests. At the same time, if someone did poorly in one of the tests, they would most likely have bad results in all the other tests. Because of this, he concluded that intelligence can be measured numerically and can be considered a general cognitive ability (Spearman, 1904). Another popular theory of intelligence is the one presented by Louis L. Thurstone (1887-1955), who refused the idea that intelligence is a general ability. Instead, he believed that intelligence could be considered a combination of seven different primary mental abilities, such as verbal comprehension, reasoning, perceptual speed, numerical ability, word fluency, associative memory, and spatial visualization (Thustone, 1938).

4. Discuss the effectiveness of intelligence testing (200-300 words)

Intelligence testing has been a helpful took to help children with learning disabilities, students who need help shaping their educational choices, and adults looking to find careers that suit their abilities. There are endless advantages and benefits that can come from intelligence testing, but there are also negative perspectives that make researchers wonder how accurate and fair those tests can really be. Intelligence testing does not take in consideration the special characteristics that each individual has, and disregards the importance of creativity, the cultural influence, and the circumstances under which the test was taken – all factors that will most likely affect the results of the tests. The President’s Commission on Excellence in Special Education (PCESE) has presented a report suggesting that using intelligence tests to diagnose learning disabilities should not happen anymore, due to the fact that those tests do not specify what kind of intervention a child with learning disabilities might need, and that child’s behavior is a better indicator of the disability than the test itself (Benson, 2003).  Examples like this show that although intelligence tests have proven to be helpful in certain situations, their use has been discredited under some circumstances, especially in the past decade. Individuals have different skills and abilities, and treating their intelligence as a fixed ability can be a mistake.

5. Identify two examples of intelligence tests (A SPECIFIC type of intelligence test used to measure intelligence – not personality, aptitude, achievement, etc.).

Two of the most popular intelligence tests are the Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. Both tests use the psychometric approach to intelligence, as they focus on individuals’ performance on standardized tests.

6. Discuss the two examples of intelligence tests identified in #5. (200-300 words)

The first intelligence test that served as a model and starting point for future tests was the one created in France by Alfred Binet, and is referred to today as the Binet-Simon scale. After this test was brought to the United States, a psychologist from Stanford University named Lewis Terman adapted that test using American participants, and it soon became the standard intelligence test used in the United States. By using a single number known as the intelligence quotient (IQ), the test measures the individual’s intelligence level by dividing his mental age by his chronological age and multiplying the result by 100. The primary issue with this test is that it can’t be applied successfully in adults, since the mental age of a 50 year-old person is not so different than the one of a 60 year-old – although the test results would be different (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). Another well-known intelligence test is the one published by David Wechsler in 1939, which differs from the Binet-Standford method by assessing nonverbal reasoning and depending less on the verbal abilities of the test taker. This test also uses an intelligence quotient, but the scores are presented on a bell-shaped curve that shows how the individual compares to the rest of the population. On the Wechsler test the score is also relative and is formulated in a way that two-thirds of the population will most likely score between 85 and 115 (Wechsler, 1949).

7. Using the two intelligence tests you have identified, discuss how they do or do not address cultural considerations. (200-300 words)

Standardized tests, like the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale it is common for racially and linguistically diverse students to perform poorly. The test bias controversy started when IQ scores of members of different ethnic and racial groups were compared, and results showed that in average, African-American students’ scored were lower by 15 points (Ford, 2004). Because they are culturally-loaded, students who are not part of the majority groups will most likely perform poorly on intelligence tests. These tests do not take in consideration cultural and language differences, factors that have been proven to affect the test results. The debate regarding whether intelligence tests are biased or not is one that has existed for many decades, and will probably not reach an end soon. In fact, there have been legal implications regarding test bias, since one judge in California ruled in 1979 that intelligence tests used for the assessment of Black children for special education classes for the educable mentally retarded are culturally biased, and a year later, one judge in Illinois judged the exact opposite in a different case (Ford, 2004). Intelligence tests must be used and played with caution, since the testing environment, the individual characteristics on individuals, and the characteristics of the test itself are factors that will most likely affect the results of the test. 

8. What have you learned about intelligence tests and testing that you did not know/that surprises you the most? (50-100 words)

The most surprising fact I learned after researching about intelligence tests is the idea that African-American students will not perform as well on those tests as white students. This information was very surprising, because I can’t seem to understand why. I can obviously understand why students who speak a different language than the one on the test would perform poorly, but students who were born in America, and speak English, still perform worse. I would like to do more research on this subject, and try to understand why this happens.

9. References

Benson, E. (2003, February). Intelligent intelligence testing. American Psychological Association, 34(2), 48.

Ford, D. Y. (2004). Intelligence testing and cultural diversity: Concerns, cautions, and considerations (RM04204). Storrs, CT: The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented, University of Connecticut.

Neisser, U. (1979, July). The concept of intelligence. Intelligence, 3(3), 217-277.

Shiraev, E. B., & Levy, D. A. (2010). Cross-cultural psychology; Critical thinking and contemporary applications (4 ed.). Boston: Pearson/Allyn Bacon.

Spearman, C. (1904). "General intelligence," objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology 15, 201-293.

Thurstone, L.L. (1938). Primary mental abilities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Warner, M. (2002). Wanted: A definition of intelligence. Studies in Intelligence, 46(3).

Wechsler, D. (1949). Wechsler intelligence scale for children (4th ed.). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Coorporation.

Psy/435 - Industrial/Organizational Psychology Worksheet

1.     Describe the evolution of the field of industrial/organizational psychology.

It is safe to say that Industrial/Organizational psychology has its roots in the late 1800s, which was the time when experimental psychologists started trying to apply basic psychology principles into organizational environments, in an attempt to maximize efficiency and productivity. In the beginning of the history of Industrial/Organizational psychology, those psychologists weren’t so interested in the well-being of workers, as much as they were trying to make sure jobs were performed as efficiently as possible. Psychologist Harry Landsberger conducted many experiments to try to understand how work conditions influenced the performance or employees, and he found out that just by having someone around the workers interested in what they were doing, those workers would perform better. Both World Wars also played a big role in the development of Industrial/Organizational Psychology, since psychologists had to use their skills when placing soldiers in positions they were most suitable for. After the wars were over, psychologists were called upon to solve issues related to productivity and efficiency, due to a military demand on go (Spector, 2012). Another element that influenced I/O psychology was experimental psychology’s techniques and principles such as psychological testing. In the United States, the I/O psychology movement can be somewhat credited to experiment psychologists Hugo Munsterberg and Walter Dill Scott, whose work focused on solving organizational issues (Spector, 2013).

2.     Explain why industrial/organizational psychology should be considered a science.  Include an explanation of how descriptive and inferential statistics are used in I/O research.

Spector (2012) explains that industrial/organizational psychologists can perform different jobs in a variety of settings, and because the practice of this field of psychology is based mainly on research produced by scientific data, industrial/organizational psychology can be considered a science, because of its base on scientific research. In fact, research is maybe the main activity performed by I/O psychologists, which also guarantees that this discipline can be considered a science. The many different researches and experiments performed by I/O psychologists have contributed for the development of hiring and training procedures, as well as the ability to help organizations solve daily problems such as employee attitude, theft, or turnover (Spector, 2012).

There are many research methods that I/O psychologists can use to perform their experiments. To analyze the data produced by empirical research, those psychologists have different statistics techniques, which include inferential and descriptive statistics methods, as well as parametric and nonparametric methods. Descriptive statistics include procedures used to describe the population being studied, and can only be used to describe that specific group. In other words, the results cannot be generalized to a larger group. Inferential statistics, on the other hand, make predictions about a larger population by analyzing a smaller sample group (Spector, 2012).

3.     Discuss the influence industrial/organization psychology has had on organizations. Provide examples.

There are many situations where industrial/organizational psychology can influence organizations. For instance, during the period of time in between the First and the Second World Wars, many organizations in the United States began to realize the importance of hiring an I/O psychologist, in order to try and solve productivity related problems. In Europe, at this same time, I/O psychology was also working towards finding ways to increase productivity and employee efficiency. In 1921, the first I/O psychology consulting firm was created by James Cattell, which was called the American Company Psychological Corporation. Around the same time, the Hawthorn studies conducted at the Western Electric Company also originated reports about how factors like the brightness of lights could increase workers’ productivity. Those studies eventually influenced concepts like employee breaks, team work, leadership, and working hours, and how they all affect productivity. Some other events that influenced the development of I/O psychology in America were the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act in 1990 and the Civil Rights Act in 1964, because they inspired researches that produced ideas to improve employee satisfaction in the workplace and new ways to increase productivity and profitability in American organizations.

Reference

Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and organizational psychology: Research and practice (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.