Psy/480 - The Practice of Clinical Psychology Worksheet

The Practice of Clinical Psychology Worksheet

Answer the following questions. Your response to each question must be at least 150 words in length.

1.     What are at least two legal issues associated with clinical psychology? Provide an example of a situation that could be legal but unethical. Explain your response.

      One example of a legal issue associated with clinical psychology is confidentiality. A clinical psychologist is bound by law to keep the client’s privacy. Maintaining the patient’s confidentiality involves not discussing the individual’s treatment, disorders, and symptoms with anyone else, both psychology professionals or not, without the consent of the patient (Hogan, 2007). Also involved in this matter is the psychologist’s ability to maintain the patient’s records in a secure place where they won’t be at risk of being stolen or copied by another individual.

     

      Another example of legal issue associated with clinical psychology is regarding the consent obtained by the psychologist from the patient, authorizing the professional to provide the treatment. If the patient is under aged or not mentally or physically unable to give the consent, a parent, legal guardian, or representative must do so (Hogan, 2007). Before initiating any kind of treatment or counseling, the therapist must be authorized to do so.

2.     What are at least two ethical issues associated with clinical psychology? Provide an example of a situation that could be ethical but illegal. Explain your response.

There are many ethical issues associated with clinical psychology, and some of these issues may be considered subjective to interpretation, while others are very clear. One ethical concern constantly discussed is the therapist’s professional abilities and competence to properly treat the patient. In many cases, students fresh out of grad school believe they are prepared and ready to start counseling, but some cases are more complicated than others. A good clinical psychologists must know when he is ready to help a patient, and when it is more appropriate to recommend another professional do to so. It is important for the professional to know his personal limitations and continue to improve and learn.

Another ethical issue is the professional’s ability to treat every patient without prejudice and bias. In some cases, a therapist will have to treat someone with beliefs and attitudes very different than his own (as in the case of treating a murdered in prison, for example. The therapist must put his convictions aside and treat the patient as he would with any other individual.

3.     Define professional boundaries, boundary crossings, and boundary violations. What effects do boundaries have on the therapeutic relationship?

Professional boundaries represent the psychological distinctions between what is considered appropriate behavior and what is not. They are important because they help the psychologist establish his personal space and the limits between his interactions with the client, while at the same time helping to focus the treatment on the patient only. Professional boundaries in clinical psychology define the limitations in the therapist/patient relationship (Plante, 2011). Boundary crossings can be considered a slight aggression towards the professional boundaries, which could happen accidentally or not.  Sometimes, if the therapist is reckless or inconsiderate, he can cross the line in his relationship with the client, but if the therapist puts his needs before the needs of the patient during treatment, or even if he confuses those needs, than that is a boundary violation. The repercussions of a boundary violation are more serious than the ones from a boundary crossing, and can cause serious harm to the therapist’s career.

4.     What are at least two cultural limitations associated with assessment and treatment? In your response, discuss the use or misuse of assessment instruments, therapy techniques, research results, or any other facet of clinical practice that could have potentially harmful, culture-specific implications.

Cultural characteristics and traits should always be taken in consideration when offering professional counseling and treatment. Each culture has its own ideologies and specific beliefs, which can affect the patient’s response to treatment. One situation that must take in consideration cultural limitations is in the case of psychometric testing. Cultural context must be evaluated, as well as differences in language and possible translation mishaps, since all of these factors will most likely affect the results of the test (Plante, 2011). 

Another situation where it is crucial to consider and respect cultural differences is when treating or counseling individuals of minority groups, since their response to treatment will be different than that of majorities. Their individualities must be taken in consideration, since, as Plate (2011) explains, it is important for the therapist to develop an intervention strategy that is culturally appropriate and respectful. By expecting the patient to respond to stimuli the same way the therapist personally would, no real results can be achieved.

Psy/480 - Clinical Psychology

Clinical Psychology

            Clinical psychology can be explained as a combination of theoretical concepts, scientific ideas, and knowledge of human thought processes, all working together to promote the well-being and psychological development of individuals. Clinical psychology has evolved tremendously since its early conception, and has adapted to the constant changes through which individuals constantly live. By comparing and contrasting clinical psychology to other disciplines in the psychology field, it is possible to fully understand the main purpose of this important tool in the pursuit of a high quality of life and well-being.

Clinical Psychology History

            Although clinical psychology can be considered a fairly recent and young discipline, aging not much more than one century, its roots and origins can be traced back to the Greeks, who recognized  many centuries ago the connection between the human mind and the body, and how this relationship affected the mental health of individuals. Famous philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, and Hippocrates believed that issues with the soul could result in illnesses in the body (Plante, 2011).

            In the Middle Ages, illnesses were considered to be flaws in the individual’s character and couldn’t be cured without treating that person’s spirit. It wasn’t until the Renaissance that a new light came upon the treatment of mental diseases and these started to be explored scientifically and not treated like spiritual and metaphysical consequences (Plante, 2011).

            The nineteenth century brought, with Sigmund Freud, a new interpretation of the connection between the mind and the body, as the psychologist and his colleagues believed that unconscious experiences had a powerful influence on the health of both the mind and the body of individuals. In fact, Freud’s ideas about the influence of the unconscious mind and his Psychoanalytical theory are still central in the modern clinical psychological treatment (Plante, 2011).

            It wasn’t until 1896 that Lightner Witmer opened his clinic and coined the term “clinical psychology”, and although at first the idea of implementing the principles of psychology into the treatment of individuals wasn’t welcomed with open arms by Witmer’s colleagues, his clinic represented a space where these treatments could actually occur (Plante, 2011).

            It is safe to say that World War I and World War II had a tremendous impact on the development of clinical psychology, as both wars presents society with the need of finding an assessment tool to treat the soldiers who would come back from war with mental disorders. At this time psychological tests were developed, administered, and interpreted, and although the clinical psychologists who treated those soldiers might have expected their contribution to be only temporary, they were established as valuable professionals and began what is still known today as an important profession (Plante, 2011).

The Evolving Nature of Clinical Psychology

            Clinical psychology is, by nature, constantly evolving. Because of new advances in technology and medicine, the world is constantly presented with new evidence of ways to treat disorders and even new explanations for the disorders themselves. Clinical psychology is strongly associated with the scientific method and modern medicine, and consequently, it shares the common evolving nature (Kazdin, 2008). Clinical psychology requires for the psychologists to understand not only the subjective characteristics of the human mind, but also the constantly-evolving knowledge of medicine and science. This combination of history and technology also contributes to the evolving nature of clinical psychology.

The Role of Research and Statistics in Clinical Psychology

            Plante (2011) explains that research is an important element in clinical psychology, since the arguments and explanations for the human mind are constantly evolving. Research allows scientists and psychologists to gain insight and remain updated on the latest developments regarding finding ways to improve the quality of life and well-being of patients. It is safe to say that research is at the very foundation of clinical psychology. Statistics are part of the scientific method and consequently, strongly associated with research. Statistics allow researchers to understand if a piece of information is valuable and applicable to wider populations, as opposed to facts that refer to specific cases. This allows researchers and psychologists to better understand the human mind and its specific characteristic without having to actually test the entire population. The constant use of research and statistics allow scientists in the field of clinical psychology to gain knowledge about human beings and develop strong critical thinking skills, benefiting not only the patients, but the entire psychology community, since "research is fundamental to both the science and practice of clinical psychology" (Plante, 2011, p. 106)

The Differences between Clinical Psychology and Other Disciplines

            Although clinical psychology can be compared with several other specialty areas in the psychology field, there are crucial differences between them. These differences may include the need for different graduate degrees as well as the focus area each professional specializes in. School psychologists can work with students in all levels of primary education, like elementary, middle, or high school. They have a master’s degree and their purpose is to help students and their families with issues associated with their education, or how their education is affected by personal problems (Plante, 2011). Social workers also have a master’s degree, and they help patients in different settings such as schools, clinics, hospitals, or even a private practice. Social workers, like clinical psychologists, focus on managing individual cases throughout long periods of time, or for however long they are necessary. A crucial difference between social workers and clinical psychologists is that the first group focuses less on the biological aspects of the illness, while clinical psychologists pay attention to both the biological elements as well as the behavioral aspects associated with disorders (Plante, 2011). Psychiatrists differ from clinical psychologists in the sense that they are physicians with training in medical psychology. They most likely went to medical school and focus primarily on the biological aspects of disorders. They are also able to prescribe medications whereas clinical psychologists are usually not (Plante, 2011).

Conclusion

            Although clinical psychology is a young branch of psychology, its importance is undeniable in the contemporary times. Most individuals can benefit from the services of a clinical psychologist at a certain point in time, as they help individuals not only overcoming disorders, but also becoming better people through difficult times. The many professions within the field of psychology may differ, but they all share the common purpose of helping patients achieve a better quality of life and work on their mental health.

References

Kazdin, A. E. (2008). Evidence-based treatment and practice: new opportunities to bridge clinical research and practice, enhance the knowledge base, and improve patient care. American Psychologist, 63(3), 146-159. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.63.3.146

Plante, T. G. (2011). Contemporary clinical psychology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Psy/475 - Issues in Psychological Testing Worksheet

Issues in Psychological Testing Worksheet

Using the text for this course, the University Library, the Internet, and/or other resources answer the following questions.  Your response to each question should be at least 200 words in length.

1.     What are at least two ethical issues associated with psychological testing?  What impact do these issues have on the field of psychological testing?
There are many issues involved with psychological testing. One ethical issue important in testing is the maintenance of confidentiality. Many individuals might be less likely to participate in tests and surveys for fear that their personal information might become public, either by accident or on purpose. To maintain the privacy of all of those involved in a specific king of psychological testing, it is important for researchers to carefully secure their records, as well as avoid talking to people not involved in the test about the participants. The confidentiality promised to participants is protected by law, but can be waived if the information could cause harms to the participant or to others (Hogan, 2007).

Another ethical issue is the sometimes difficult task of obtaining informed consent. When trying to get individuals to agree with participating in psychological testing, many will agree without knowing beforehand all the details involved with that test. The same goes for tests performed in children, since it is important for parents to be fully aware and in agreement of what their children will be put through.  Consent from parents and/or participants must occur only when they are fully aware of all the procedures that will be used during the test, as well as the expected duration and purpose of the test Hogan, 2007). 

2.     What are at least two legal issues associated with psychological testing?  How do these issues affect the field of psychological testing?
One legal issue that can affect the development and outcome of psychological tests is the accommodation, or most likely, lack of thereof, for participants with physical disabilities. Hogan (2007) explains that the American with Disabilities Act of 1990 demands that for any individuals who cannot participate in average test-taking activities, the necessary accommodations must be made. These accommodations could be things like ramps for wheelchairs users to have access the testing area, tests printed in larger fonts for the sight impaired test takers, or special arrangements for the hearing impaired. All these measurements are important to avoid discrimination against the disabled individuals, and consequently, avoid law suits against the researchers (Hogan, 2007).

Another legal issue present in psychological testing is discrimination of any kind against individuals of a certain race or ethnicity (Hogan, 2007). Unless the test is about differences between people of different races or ethnicities, tests should have a uniform procedure that does not include discrimination against any individual’s origins. By infringing on the rights of certain individuals from a particular ethnicity or race, the entity performing the test is immediately at risk of having to defend themselves against a lawsuit and having their credibility questioned (Hogan, 2007). 

3.     Which court case do you feel has had the largest impact on the field of psychological testing?  Why?

One of the court cases mentioned by Hogan (2007) that, in my opinion, represented a large impact on the field of psychological testing was one of Griggs v. Duke Power, in which Griggs, among other thirteen African American plaintiffs fought against Duke Power’s generation plant, which required that its employees had a high school diploma and a passing score on an intelligence test (Hogan, 2007). The plaintiffs argued that at that time, African Americans were still the target of racial discrimination, and have not received the same education as white people did, and consequently had lower test scores. Although at this time (1971), the Civil Rights Act of 1964 had already passed, African Americans were still suffering the consequences of years of discrimination. The company argued that they did not intend any discrimination, but wanted to upgrade the staff with individuals that met the requirement of high school diploma and test scores – black or white. At the end, the Court believed that the company did not show enough relationship between the necessity of intelligence tests and the job performance requirements (Hogan, 2007). This case was so important for the field of psychological testing because it brought to surface the importance of concepts like validation, in the sense that although tests may be used in employment decisions, that test must be validated, or in other words, must have a relationship with the job performance requirements (Hogan, 2007).

Reference

Hogan, T. P. (2007). Psychological testing: A practical introduction (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Psy/475 - Introduction to Psychological Testing

Introduction to Psychological Testing

Psychological testing is a field of psychology that focuses on measuring and observing individuals’ mental and behavioral aspects. Tests allow researchers to understand a person’s individuality while comparing that individual with others, for means of research and self-understanding. Although tests are can be inefficient and even harmful for some individuals, with the proper reliability and validity they can be strong and credible, helping psychologists and researchers to reach a better understanding of human nature.

The Definition of “Test”

Hogan (2007) explains that tests are defined as a consequence of the combination of six common elements, which the author extracted from the explanation of different authors in the field.  These elements are procedure (or device), information, behavior, sample of behavior, systematic (or standardized) procedure, and quantification (or measurement). By combining these six elements, the author can finally define test as a “standardized process or device that yields information about a sample of behavior or cognitive processes in a quantified manner” (Hogan, 2007, p. 41).

Primary Users of Tests

            In the study of tests, there are four groups of the primary users of tests. These groups include clinical, educational, personnel, and research (Hogan, 2007). The first group happens in a clinical setting, and tests are used in a context like school psychology, helping students, or neuropsychology, helping patients to find the specific nature of their problems, or even just on a counseling environment (Hogan, 2007).

            The second group, educational, uses tests to help students to find the best way to learn, as well as measuring the competence and ability of the educational system and predicting the success of certain students in the academic world. The primary users of tests in this category are teachers, parents, and educational administrators (Hogan, 2007).

            The third group, personnel, also includes the employment and professional environment. This group uses tests to help organizations to select, train, and place the most qualified individuals on the position he or she will thrive the most. The military also fits in this category, as they use tests to place individuals where they will be more efficient and successful (Hogan, 2007).

            The last group, research, uses tests in fields like education, social sciences, behavioral studies, and psychology to study and better understand human nature. This group is useful in defining the reliability and validity guidelines for tests that all the other groups will also use (Hogan, 2007).

Major Test Categories

            The five major categories included in the field of psychological tests are mental ability tests, achievement tests, personality tests, interests and attitudes tests, and neuropsychological tests (Hogan, 2007). The first category, mental ability tests, measure individual’s cognitive functions such as memory, intelligence, and creative thinking. The second kind, achievement tests, can either measure specific achievements or skills in areas like math, reading, and science. The third category, personality tests, can be considered the most used psychology test, as they compare the individual’s results to those of clinical groups, producing then information about people’s individual personality characteristics. The fourth kind, which tests the interests and attitudes of individuals, are commonly used in educational fields, like colleges and high schools. Lastly, neuropsychological tests measure individuals’ brain functions and the activity of individuals’ central nervous system (Hogan, 2007). 

Reliability and Validity of Tests

            For a test to have any value, it must have validity or reliability. Validity refers to idea that a test is measuring what it was set up to measure, while reliability refers to how consistent that measurement actually is. It is important to note that test can be reliable without being valid, but it cannot be valid unless it is also reliable. Hogan (2007) explains that a test should be replicable, dependable, and consistent. This means that the results of a reliable and valid test are not just a case of good luck, but can actually be achieved again when the test is repeated.

            Although reliability should be present in tests, the validity of a test can be considered its most important element, according to Hogan (2007). This statement is true because a test should strive to be in agreement with the inferences resulted by it. The more valid and reliable a test is, the stronger its results will be accepted by the community within which it is being performed.

Conclusion

            When trying to gather information regarding human behaviors and thought processes, tests are an extremely useful tool. They can be used in a variety of fields and disciplines, and some areas are dependent on the results of tests to evolve. As long as a test is valid and reliable, it does not need to be extremely complicated to be helpful. Even simple tests, when performed correctly, can give an insight into the human mind.

Reference

Hogan, T. P. (2007). Psychological testing: a practical introduction (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ:
John Wiley & Sons.